History "interest rate" (restrictions in basic education of Jews in the XIX - the beginning XX cc.) History "interest rate»
(restrictions in basic education of Jews
in XIX - early XX centuries).
Alexander Mindlin
(Moscow)
After partition the Commonwealth during the reign of Catherine II was taken a wide variety of legislative attacks on Jews. Which came into effect in 1804, "Regulations for the Jews" generalize the preceding laws and regulated the lives of Jews in Russia. It it first gave the children the right of Jews to study in any educational institutions of the Empire [1]. Authorities assumed to attract Jewish youth to education, to train her Russian grammar, to raise, as she thought, low cultural and moral level of the Jews. But the Jewish community that took the national-religious character, feared the education and found it directed against the secular foundations of national culture. In the Russian public schools Jews were alien to the people, and language. But education by itself was not for them any real value.
To bring public education to the Jewish life and make it more attractive, the new "Regulations on the Jews" in 1835 allowed Jewish children to study in Russian high schools only in areas in whom the permit is allowed to fathers, "that is in the Pale of Settlement. After finishing high school, they could enter the higher educational institutions (hereinafter: the universities) throughout the Empire. He received a student, candidate's, master's and artist's "Situation" gives the right to request personal, received his doctorate - Hereditary honorary citizenship. Doctors also could do on the educational and civil service (but not, except with the highest resolution), and received such a service - to live in inland provinces and in the capitals [2]. However, such "privileges" substantially changed the relationship of Jews to the breech ring formation.
Meanwhile, in 1827, was approved by the "Charter recruit conscription and military service of Jews" to be prescribed to serve 25 years, and cantonists who called with 12 years - up to 31 years. Realizing that any opportunity to reduce the life span may be regarded as a blessing, a decree in 1844 established the Jewish state-owned colleges, retaining the right of Jews to study in the general Christian education, and reduced service life when entering recruits almost doubled for graduates of district schools and equated Jewish schools 2-second discharge, as well as gymnasium. Graduated from high school with honors and have rendered exemplary behavior at much success in Russian language and literature "at all exempt from recruitment [3]. Note that the decree was expressed regret that the "benefits" that are assigned to Jews in part of Education Regulations "in 1804 and 1835's, did not lead to desired results, and noted that" education and what is happening on the belief in the benefits of productive Labor should improve the life of the Jews. "
In subsequent years, the government continued to take some steps to provide further "Benefits" to the Jews. Thus, the decree in 1861 allowed doctors of medicine and doctors, masters and candidates for non-medical professions in the service of all departments, without limitation seat of their feature "[residence], and allowed them to" permanent residence "in the Empire" to engage in trade and industry. " "Charter of conscription" 1874 period of military service is reduced from 6 to 1.5 years for graduates of high schools and secondary schools and to 6 months for graduates of universities [4].
Gradually, in connection with the terms of renewed Russian interest in the life of Jews in general educational institutions grew, and their number is in the public schools and universities has increased. This is especially manifested after closing in 1873, treasury of Jewish schools 1-th digit, the corresponding parochial schools, and 2-nd level, where instruction was in the amount of county or real schools. Jewish School 1-th digit are preserved only where at largest Jewish population of common schools was not enough [5].
If the 60-ies of the XIX century, the Minister of Education stated that "the government wishes to attract Jews in general educational institutions, and not sequester them in special training schools ", if in the 70 years it was on such a foundation was based reform Jewish schools in 1873, the 80-ies of the Ministry of Education is at the opposite point of view. The first idea to limit the reception Jews in general education expressed in the early 1881 Alexander II, Trustee of the Odessa school district NA Lavrovsky under the influence of disturbances that occurred at the end of 1880 in some southern high schools. The king replied: "Not so long ago we thought to destroy the Jewish particular involvement of Jews in the Russian educational institutions; circumstances have changed and now the Jews becomes more in the public schools than the Christians. " In a memorandum to the Ministry of Education in year Lavrovsky wrote that "overflow gymnasiums and progymnasium County Jewish pupils restricts access of Christian children in the training institution and has a significant negative influence on the moral warehouse these children. " Trustee of the Kiev school district proposed to restrict the number of Jews in schools a certain percentage, the trustee is the Vilna school district - substantially reduce the reception of high school kids do all those lower classes, including Christians, engaged in "low" professions [6].
Influenced Lavrovsky Odessa Governor-General IV Gurko most loyal in the report in 1883, repeated his statement and proposed to limit the reception of Jews in the secondary schools the norm of 15% or a percentage equal to the number of local Jewish population to the total population of the area. Alexander III wrote in a report: "I share this belief." But the remark about Gurko allegedly harmful effects of the Jews in Christian children king responded this way: "In this necessary to pay attention." At one of the similar documents Alexander III in 1884 made a note: "The question that it would be desirable to resolve definitively." (It is interesting to know what he meant, because those words today become a very sinister meaning.)
Report Gurko at the behest of the king was submitted to the Committee of Ministers. He did not consider it possible to accept the offer in connection Gurko with its complexity and, mainly, the fact that this measure should be legislative in nature, that is to pass through the State Council. Committee asked the Minister of Education to discuss the proposal Gurko. The king approved the decision in February 1883. Lavrovsky objected to the rules emanating of the percentage of Jewish population to the total, as in many cities Novorossiya Jews constituted half of the total population, and advocated a restrictive rate of 10% to 15% [7].
different picture was in the interior provinces of Russia (outside the Pale). There was observed shortage of students, and therefore, in schools, happened to take Jewish children regardless of whether their parents are there right to live. Nevertheless, the Ministry of Education in July 1884 released Circular suggestion of the head of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Kazan, Orenburg, Dorpat and Caucasian school districts, reminiscent of the rules of admission of Jewish children in secondary schools. It said that the children of Jews can be trained in state schools only those places where allowed to live their fathers. Violation of existing rules give Jewish children a chance to live in the provinces where they are forbidden, and their parents - Initiate an application for permission to co-residence with children, to give students the means "to the end of education" [8]. Now the Ministry of Interior needs when taking children to secondary schools outside the Pale provide evidence of the local police for permission to live in the area.
In 1883, Alexander III established the High Commission to revise existing on the Jews in the empire of laws. Soon it was headed by former Justice Minister, Member of the Council of State Earl KI Palen, who led the commission until its closure in 1888. Named chairman of the commission called Palenskoy.
apparently in 1886 the Committee of Ministers requested the Commission to propose measures against the Jews overflow schools. At the same time the Committee informed the Commission of the highest resolution on the report of the Governor of Kharkov in 1885 about the dangers of the influx of Jews in schools: "It is quite the same complaint we hear constantly from Odessa. " But long before the consideration of this matter the Commission adopted the following measures: in 1882 limited the number of Jews 5% in medical Academy since 1883 in the Mining Institute of the Jews began to accept no more than 5% of the number of entrants in 1884 limited their reception at the Institute of Communications, in 1885 the highest decree ordered the Jews to accept the newly opened Kharkiv Institute of Technology more than 10%, in 1886, completely stopped taking them in Kharkov Veterinary Institute. With regard to the latter two institutions, in the opinion of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Kharkov considered the center of political agitation, and residence of Jews in this city seemed to unwanted and even dangerous.
Palenskaya Commission, in turn, entrusted the preparation of materials on about educating Jewish Chairman of the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Education, AI St. George.
At the same time, the Committee of Ministers invited the Minister of Public Education to temporarily strengthen the administrative measures to restrict the admission of Jews to the jurisdiction of the Ministry schools. The king approved this decision on Dec. 5, 1886.
Education Minister ID Delianov said most loyal in the report for 1886, if earlier it was believed that Jews tend to get education without selfish purposes, but now they go to university, for the most part, not to acquire scientific knowledge, and to evade military service and obtaining the right of residence of the widespread [9].
Palenskaya Commission began discussion of the issue referred to the hearing report, George "On Measures relative to the formation of the Jews after 1886. " He criticized the statements of Trustees of the school districts, including Lavrovsky, accused the Jews in harmful impact on student-Christians. St George's thought that promiscuity students explained the order of the school and the shortcomings of the teaching personnel, not the influence of the Jews. He was against the interest of establishing standards for the Jews, but also spoke of the need to make the Jews the right to education and social estate privilege that is not to allow children to educational institutions of the Jews from the lower classes.
Committee Chairman Palen and eight of its members joined in the opinion St. George and offered to take in high school and college kids just real wealthy Jewish merchants from the 2 nd guild. The other five members Commission argued for the imposition of restrictive norms - 10% Pale and 5% outside of it [10].
Without waiting for a final decision Palenskoy Commission Delianov introduced to the Committee of Ministers of the note "On the restricted admission of Jews in the secondary schools of the Ministry of Education." He believed that should to unite the views of both sides of the commission: and the introduction of interest rules, and acceptance of children only wealthy Jews, such as the "hereditary and personal nobility, Honorary Citizens, Commerce and Manufactures advisers, scientists, artists, people with a certificate of completion of the course of higher education institutions and merchants 1 st guild. The Committee of Ministers did not agree with this proposal, noting the June 16, 1887, that the majority of Jewish students belong to the lower strata; if they are excluded, the percentage of Jews in secondary schools is lower than the rate proposed by the Ministry. In addition, the Committee of Ministers considered it inappropriate the establishment of identical standards for all schools districts outside the Pale of 5% and 10% in it, as the number of Jews living in different districts of substantially different: in the districts outside the Pale of them were less than 5%, and in the districts in it - sometimes more than 10%, for example, in the Odessa District of 32%.
Committee of Ministers called for then to the restrictive regulations on the admission of Jews in educational institutions are not advertised, because it "could be misinterpreted, and that the government's goal - to protect schools from an influx of persons of Jewish religion - can be achieved \u0026lt;...> through private orders Minister in accordance with the needs of individual districts or individual schools' [11].
in power spheres considered the idea of limiting admission not only the children of Jews, but generally all of the poor. So, June 18, 1887 Delianov issued a circular on the significant reduction of admission to school and progymnasium Children unsecured parents, both Jews and Christians - the so-called circular "about the cooks children."
June 26 the king approved the Journal Committee Meeting министров от 16 июня. Необходимо подчеркнуть, что журналы заседаний Комитета, или иначе "положения Комитета министров", получившие высочайшее утверждение 5 December 1886 and June 26, 1887, never been published.
Thus, the Committee of Ministers, being as it were, to one side, provided the Ministry of Education broad powers, not to outline their limits, not to determine how to establish the interest rate and do not even stipulate the introduction of standards in action.
Delianov to use their powers and July 10, 1887, apparently with the consent of the king, issued a circular on the interest rate for the reception of Jews in the Middle educational institutions, not all agree with the Committee of Ministers. According to the Circular was declared fit to limit the number of students of Jewish children in areas outside the line of constant residence, 10%, in other areas outside this line, 5%, while in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 3% of the total number of students to be Admission at the beginning of each academic year; calculation of interest should be made with respect to the total number of both newly arriving students and transitioning from one institution to another or from progymnasium to school. Subsequently, when these students \u0026lt;...> will consistently finish the course or leave institutions, the number of Jewish students, again taken under specified percent decrease, then we will comply with the order, so that the total the number of Jewish students did not exceed [the required per cent] of the total number of students in each institution, depending on the area in which per se is "[12]. Norms introduced since the beginning of 1887/1888 academic year.
At the same time the Minister issued a circular on the admission of Jews to universities with the same standards.
adoption of these documents was carried out not as the adoption of legislative acts with the previous passage through the Council of State, and the method up to that time did not apply even if existed at the time of chaos review rulings had the force of law.
Circulars on the interest rate, as well as all the provisions of the Jews, were considered "Temporary." The text of certain laws, even state the date - pending review by law decrees on the Jews. SY Witte Memoirs wrote: "All the most important laws restricting the rights of Jews, they went into the last decade, not in law, and by the Committee of Ministers as the laws of the time. " He did emphasize that "always used a hypocritical formula: continue to review all the laws of the Jews" [13]. Although in circulars Delyanov indication of their "temporary" was not, perhaps, he suggests, because the government did not even bother to remove from the 9 th Volume of the Laws of article 966, according to which "the children of Jews could be admitted and learning, without any distinction from other children in the general treasury schools \u0026lt;...> Of the places to whom the permit is allowed their fathers. " This article in the edition of the Laws of 1876 repeats Article 787 of the same 9-second volume of the Laws Publication 1899 - 12 years after the publication of circulars Delyanov.
In 1906, Nicholas II about "Memory" of the Council of Ministers, which proposed to cancel interest rates in high schools, wrote: "The Jewish question must be considered \u0026lt;...> when I admit it blagovremennym. After a royal resolution illusion about the revision in the law all the provisions of the Jews dispersed. Only in the years 1908-1909 Minister of Education, AN Schwartz designed the interest rates in the form of laws, but again, not legally, but in addition to the State Duma and State Council as the highest approved provisions of the Council of Ministers. And even then, these laws are reflected in Article 787 continue in 1912 (Part 5-I) of the Laws [14].
Restricting access to educational institutions harming the Jews. The desire to educate children has become increasingly common, including for economic reasons. Handicraft is not found for a free space. After the introduction of the "Interim Rules" May 3, 1882, forbidding Jews to live in the countryside Pale, their trading activity was limited only to cities and places. Therefore, the aspirations of the Jews appealed to the liberal professions. In general schools flocked economically weaker sections of the Jewish population. Christians have an average, let alone higher education have sought, mostly, the bourgeoisie and the nobility. Do the Jews as secondary and higher education have sought children of lower classes, those who could only afford it for economic reasons. Process democracy did not suit the government and urged them to oppose the formation of the Jews, which ultimately revolutionized the Jewish youth.
In practice, to go to college, for the Jews established the need for a gold medal in the gymnasium. However, it was believed that due to lack of public financial resources, medals at all impossible to manufacture, and therefore be awarded but not issued, only making a mark in the appropriate certificate. Medalists were too many, and they could all go to college.
At first glance, it was strange. If the high school took only a certain percentage of the total number of Jews coming, then why their graduates could not get into universities, where, with rare exception, applied the same norm? This phenomenon is explained by the fact that the Jews arrived at school almost all of them finished, whereas non-Jews often do not complete their education and for different reasons, dropped out of the number of students. Therefore, in the senior classes of Jews almost always exceeded the norm, and among their graduates is greater. That's it for the resulting surplus of access to higher education was closed [15].
Delianov probably believed that the strict application of interest rates in secondary education is a sufficient guarantee against the influx of Jews to universities, although he enjoyed the right to minister to allow them Jews above the norm. However, liberalism Delyanov applied only to provincial universities, the shortage of experienced students.
In 1889 Delianov issued a circular, multiple softening the rules. It has officially recognized the possibility of admission of Jews to universities above the norm, but it has been arranged by bureaucratic slingshots. Jew-entrant had to apply for the admission of the trustee of the school district, where he remained for him the desired university or high school, he graduated, for here he "Better known". If high school was located in the district, which has no university, he was going to college nearby district. Jews take in excess of the permitted only when they are "different behavior" and "very good progress in the sciences." In other cases, the trustee should submit the case for solutions to the Ministry of public education [16]. Following the Ministry of Education and other agencies having educational institutions set interest rate of admission to them, and some completely closed to the Jews.
In the 90 years the Ministry of Education has instructed that the number of all students in the institution of the Jews, along with the newly adopted do not exceed norm. Consequently, many schools have stopped accepting all Jews. Interest-rate spread and university admissions volunteer. And as those of nevreev was not enough, for the Jews is in fact meant a ban on this form of learning.
Naturally, these anti-Semitic measures taken in the reign of Alexander III, in the years of political reaction, have caused a sharp rejection of the Jews.
On this occasion, Count II Tolstoy, a former minister procvescheniya in the cabinet Witte in 1905-1906, after his retirement in 1907, wrote: "The universities periodically though and get rid of the influx of Jewish youth but \u0026lt;...> dissatisfaction generated by these measures (restrictive regulations. - AM), has repeatedly served as a pretext to student unrest \u0026lt;...>. Jewish youth \u0026lt;...> shall enter into life with the indelible sense of resentment and hostility to limit its right to state authorities. These embittered elements enriched and supported the revolutionary parties \u0026lt;...>, universities, safe from the influx of Jews \u0026lt;...>, were completely fenced from promoting the same revolutionary parties "[17]. Delianov stayed on as minister for over 15 years (1882-1897 years). After his death in 1898, the Minister appointed trustee Moscow school district, former rector of Moscow State University, Professor NP Bogolepova. Unlike Delyanov, he claimed not to deviate from the norm Under no circumstances and take steps to reduce it. Bogolepov ordered to calculate the interest rate for admission to universities is not the total number of annual incoming applicants, and for each university department separately, thereby tightening the rules of admission, because the Jews sought primarily the medical and law faculties. History and Philology and Faculty of Mathematics and Physics were not attractive, because after the end of the Jews could not secure earnings due to non-teachers' and academic positions.
In the late 90's there were riots in the universities in which participated and Jewish students. Bogolepov tried to pacify the rebellious students of the impact of their soldiers, and a former student, SR, PV Karpovich in early 1901 committed покушение на министра; тот вскоре скончался. Историк С.М. Дубнов назвал Боголепова ”жандармом просвещения” [18].
В марте 1901 года проходила Всероссийская student strike, which paralyzed the entire system of higher education. Nicholas II found it necessary to appoint a minister of a strong man with the experience of state service, which could stabilize the situation in high school. Was chosen as a former war minister, General of Infantry PS Vannovsky, which in 1899 commandment of the king produced an investigation of student unrest, which began at St. Petersburg University and then encroached on other schools. It was regarded as a temporary figure for a particular assignment [19]. In May 1901, shortly after his appointment, Vannovsky issued a circular in which he wrote: "Culprits of riots in largely the face of non-Russian origin", under which, of course, meant the Jews. In connection with the actual excess of the interest rate at all universities Vannovsky ordered to temporarily reduce the acceptance of Jews by setting the following rules: 7% in the Pale of Settlement, 3% outside it, and 2% in the capital (instead of 10, 5 and 3% respectively).
Vannovsky minister served just over a year (1901-1902 years). He was succeeded by Professor GE Zenger, who in July 1902 restored the previous standards in a relatively "calm" in the sense of student unrest Warsaw and Novorossiysk (Odessa), universities and the Riga Polytechnic Institute, and in other schools canceled pofakultetnoe calculus of interest rules. Circular Zenger to June 1903 resulted in interest rates for all the universities of the Ministry of Education to the level of 1901. For one academic year 1904/1905 standards increased from 10 to 15% in the Pale of Settlement, from 5 to 7% outside of it, and from 3 to 5% in the capital in the form of special benefits for the birth of Tsarevich [20].
Almost from the beginning of the introduction of interest rate caused a protest reaction mostly faculty members of universities. It is particularly intensified in the revolution of 1905-1907. And after granting in 1905 of university autonomy their tips were without prior arrangement to neglect the interest rate. This is understandable: the universities were interested in students who want to learn. AN Schwartz, who was minister of education in the years 1908-1910, wrote that the widespread gross violation of norms of interest even before the revolution promoted circular "Offering the rulers of educational institutions by filling the Jews for some reason are not occupied by Christians of the place" [21]. However, more precise information about This circular could not be found. Tips same universities make decisions, using the contradictions between the old, not repealed the legislation, and new developments, caused a wave of revolutionary action.
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